tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-81725783114799944452024-03-13T10:00:38.884-07:00rrrkakushirrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.comBlogger12125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-42222825190166246332013-01-15T11:09:00.001-08:002013-01-15T13:24:42.453-08:00duality principle<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="FontStyle33"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 23.0pt;">We have given these figures to show
what an enormous economy <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8172578311479994445" name="_GoBack"></a>is achieved by having in human
language this "duality principle," as it has been called: first an
encoding into morphemes, and then a separate encoding of morphemes into </span></span><span class="FontStyle25"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 24.0pt; letter-spacing: 1.0pt;">oneormore</span></span><span class="FontStyle33"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 23.0pt;">phonemes each.</span></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://geopolicraticus.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/language-tree.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://geopolicraticus.files.wordpress.com/2011/01/language-tree.gif" height="258" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="Style14" style="line-height: 33.5pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-indent: 44.85pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Style14" style="line-height: 33.5pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-indent: 44.85pt;">
<span class="FontStyle33"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 23.0pt;">There is, however, a
very bad flaw in our figures: We have assumed that it is possible for phonemes
to occur in any mathematically possible sequence, such as (for English)
/ppppp/, /fstgk/, etc. But English of course <span style="letter-spacing: -1.0pt;">does</span>
not do this; like every language, it places very strict limitations on possible
sequences of phonemes. Nevertheless, even with the strictest sorts of limits,
the duality principle permits every language to form far more morpheme shapes
than it will ever use.</span></span></div>
rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-87384335858649407432013-01-15T11:08:00.000-08:002013-01-15T11:08:05.841-08:00language used only one phoneme<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="FontStyle33"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 23.0pt;">This device of encoding morphemes into
</span></span><span class="FontStyle25"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 24.0pt; letter-spacing: 1.0pt;">oneormore</span></span><span class="FontStyle33"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 23.0pt;">phonemes
each is an extraordinarily powerful one, and in terms of sheer economy it is
hard to overestimate its importance. If a language used only one phoneme per
morpheme, it could have only as many morphemes as it has phonemes. But if a
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phonemes the figure is 3,368,420; for thirty phonemes it is 25,137,930; and for
forty phonemes (English has between thirty and forty, depending on just how you
figure them) it reaches the fantastic total of 105,025,640 possible morpheme
shapes.</span></span></div>
rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-30768640866204718872013-01-15T11:07:00.003-08:002013-01-15T11:07:28.726-08:00accomplished by encoding<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -2.0pt;">3.</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">PhonologicalEncoding.</span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">When
</span></span><span class="FontStyle32"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 29.0pt;">J </span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">grammatical encoding
has been completed, the message enters the phonological component of the <span style="letter-spacing: -1.0pt;">codeasa </span>string of morphemes, and these
must now be encoded for sound. This is accomplished by encoding each morpheme
into one or more basic phonological units or phonemes (from Greek </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">phone
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<span style="letter-spacing: -1.0pt;">/cek/,</span></span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">stone
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<span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">(Written symbols for
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the letters of regular spelling and <span style="letter-spacing: -1.0pt;">from</span>
the symbols used in phonetic transcription. Just what symbols are used for
phonemes is unimportant; one must merely have a different symbol for each
phoneme <span style="letter-spacing: 1.5pt;">in</span> the language.)</span></span></div>
rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-67183225041496615052013-01-15T11:06:00.003-08:002013-01-15T11:06:32.630-08:00Still more elegant is transformation<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-qformat:yes;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin-top:0in;
mso-para-margin-right:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt;
mso-para-margin-left:0in;
line-height:115%;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:11.0pt;
font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";
mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;
mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;
mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;}
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<![endif]-->
<br />
<div class="Style12" style="line-height: 31.45pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-indent: 37.45pt;">
<span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">How does our grammar
provide for this enormous variety and flexibility? If we merely want to reach
infinity quickly, we need only allow ourselves to use the word </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">and
</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">over and over again. There are, however, two far more
elegant devices. One is that of </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">embedding: </span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">putting
a construction inside a construction, etc., like a Chinese puzzle. A classic
example is the, </span></span><br /><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
<o:RelyOnVML/>
<o:AllowPNG/>
</o:OfficeDocumentSettings>
</xml><![endif]--></div>
<br />
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<w:WordDocument>
<w:View>Normal</w:View>
<w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom>
<w:TrackMoves/>
<w:TrackFormatting/>
<w:PunctuationKerning/>
<w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/>
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<w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript>
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<w:BreakWrappedTables/>
<w:SnapToGridInCell/>
<w:WrapTextWithPunct/>
<w:UseAsianBreakRules/>
<w:DontGrowAutofit/>
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<w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/>
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<w:CachedColBalance/>
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<m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/>
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<m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/>
<m:smallFrac m:val="off"/>
<m:dispDef/>
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<m:rMargin m:val="0"/>
<m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/>
<m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/>
<m:intLim m:val="subSup"/>
<m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/>
</m:mathPr></w:WordDocument>
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<span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">Still more elegant is </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">transformation,
</span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">whereby a basic sentence type <span style="letter-spacing: -1.0pt;">may be</span> transformed into a large variety of derived
constructions. Thus </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">the dog </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">bites</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;"> the man </span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">can
be transformed into: </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">the dog </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">bit</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;"> (has bitten, had
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biting, has been biting, can bite, </span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">etc.) </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">the
man; the man </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">is bitten</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">
(was </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">bitten,</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">
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man; (the man) that the dog bites; (the man) that </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">isbitten</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;"> by the dog; (the
dog) that the man </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">isbitten</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">
by; </span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">etc.</span></span></div>
<br />
rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-50969764522278136662013-01-15T11:05:00.005-08:002013-01-15T11:05:47.136-08:00grammar has focused on the following familiar<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">Morphemes are then
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<span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">Recent interest in
grammar has focused on the following familiar and yet astonishing (and somehow
disturbing) fact—any speaker can say, and any hearer can understand, an
infinite number of sentences; and, indeed, many of the sentences we say and
hear have never been said before.</span></span></div>
<br />
rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-57928825868111588832013-01-15T11:05:00.001-08:002013-01-15T11:05:03.620-08:00The grammatical code of Latin<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">The grammatical code
of Latin employs totally different devices. For the meaning "dog bites
man" it marks the unit "dog" as nominative </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">(cants),
</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">the unit "man" as accusative </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">(yirum),
</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">and it can then combine these words with </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">tnordet</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">"bites"
in any order whatever. For the opposite message it would mark "dog"
as accusative </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">(canem), </span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">"man"
as nominative (wr), and it could then again combine these with </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">tnordet</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">in any order at all.</span></span></div>
<div class="Style15" style="line-height: 28.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-indent: 31.6pt;">
<span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">English grammar
signals the difference between subject and object by means of word order; Latin
grammar signals it by means of inflectional endings; other languages use still
other device^<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 44.0pt;">I</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">
semantic </span></span><span class="FontStyle29"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">connection at an, </span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">me
</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">to </span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">or </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">try
to come, </span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">tor example, or the </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">4y</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">of </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">quickly.</span></span></div>
rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-20174398283349758792013-01-15T11:04:00.003-08:002013-01-15T11:04:40.352-08:00ENCODING AND DECODING LINGUISTIC MESSAGES<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">every language has a
special sieve of its own. The discipline which studies such metaphorical sieves
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<span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt; letter-spacing: -1.0pt;">2.</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">GrammaticalEncoding.</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">Once
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it in the order </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">dog </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">bites</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;"> man</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">;
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dog </span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">gives quite a different message.</span></span></div>
rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-91852142518437156112013-01-15T11:04:00.000-08:002013-01-15T11:04:09.343-08:00group a host of different objects<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="FontStyle23"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; letter-spacing: 3.0pt;">II</span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">he
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<span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">As these examples
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rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-37386871309061084942013-01-15T11:03:00.004-08:002013-01-15T11:03:35.433-08:00Semantic Encoding<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: 4.0pt;">/.</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">SemanticEncoding,</span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">We
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say). Since this is like putting a<br />
message in shape to fit the code in which it is to be sent, we can call the<br />
process </span></span><span class="FontStyle25"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 24.0pt;">semantic encoding*</span></span></div>
<span class="FontStyle24"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 27.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">H<sup>:</sup></span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">If
A wants to talk to B about some sort of timepiece, his encoding will depend on
whether he means the kind that hangs on the wall or stands on </span></span><span class="FontStyle23"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">a </span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">table
(a </span></span><span class="FontStyle25"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 24.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">chc/()<sub>9</sub></span></span><span class="FontStyle30"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">or
the kind that is carried in the pocket or worn on the wrist (a </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;">watch),
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<span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">In a sense this has been merely a
return to some of the prime interests of our nineteenth century
predecessors—Wilhelm von Humboldt, for example. It has also brought American
linguistics out of the scholarly isolation from which it suffered for a time,
and into closer contact with such related disciplines as psychology and
philosophy. (The contact with anthropology has always been close.)</span></span></div>
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<span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">How
</span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt; letter-spacing: -.5pt;">are</span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">two
people able to talk together? Since most of us never ask this question, but
take the matter for granted, it is useful to consider just what goes on. Let us
assume that we have a speaker A and a hearer B, that A says something to B, and
that B understands him without difficulty. Here an act of communication via
language has taken place. But </span></span><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">how </span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">did
it take place ? What went on inside of A ? How did the communication move from
A to <span style="letter-spacing: 2.5pt;">B?</span> And what went on inside of <span style="letter-spacing: 2.5pt;">B?</span> The process seems to consist of at least
eleven different steps. [See the diagram on page 217.J</span></span></div>
rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-25991276854201009722013-01-15T11:02:00.002-08:002013-01-15T11:02:22.651-08:00how two people are able to talk together<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">But </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">when
</span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">a </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">linguist says that he
is doing some research which he hopes will help us understand </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">a
</span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">little better how it is that "two people are able </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">to
talk </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">together," most people shake their heads
in puzzlement.</span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"></span></span></div>
<div class="Style2" style="line-height: 24.0pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-indent: 25.75pt;">
<span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">Yet how two </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">people
</span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">are </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">able to talk together
is, of course, the central </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">problem. </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">During
</span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">the 1930's and 1940</span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">'s, most American
linguists attacked it </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">by </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">trying
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discovering the structure of lan-</span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="right" class="Style3" style="line-height: 12.0pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: right;">
<br /></div>
<div align="right" class="Style3" style="margin-top: 7.4pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; text-align: right;">
<span class="FontStyle20"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">From </span></span><span class="FontStyle21"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">NEA
Journal </span></span><span class="FontStyle20"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">(January 1965). Reprinted by permission of
the National</span></span><span class="FontStyle20"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"></span></span></div>
<div class="Style4" style="margin-top: 1.75pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;">
<span class="FontStyle20"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Educational
Association and the author.</span></span><span class="FontStyle20"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"></span></span></div>
</div>
<span class="FontStyle20"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: auto;" />
</span></span>
<div class="Section2">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.0pt; margin-top: 9.75pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<span class="FontStyle20"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"></span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; letter-spacing: 1.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-text-raise: -2.5pt; position: relative; top: 2.5pt;">
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<div class="Section3">
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<span class="FontStyle26"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">EXPOSITORY <span style="letter-spacing: 1.0pt;">TYPE:</span> PROCESS</span></span><span class="FontStyle26"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"></span></span></div>
</div>
<span class="FontStyle26"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; font-weight: normal; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
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<div class="Style9" style="line-height: 12.0pt; margin-left: 25.3pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;">
<br /></div>
<div class="Style9" style="line-height: 26.8pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 25.3pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 2.15pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;">
<span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 22.0pt;">guage</span></span><span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">—any
language—and of analyzing and classifying what they found.</span></span></div>
<div class="Style9" style="line-height: 26.8pt; margin-left: 25.1pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;">
<span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">Then, in the late
1950's there came a rather dramatic swing in another</span></span></div>
<div class="Style9" style="line-height: 26.8pt; margin-left: .3in; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;">
<span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">direction: away from
mere classification of data toward a search for uni-</span></span></div>
<div class="Style9" style="line-height: 26.8pt; margin-left: 19.6pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;">
<span class="FontStyle22"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 21.0pt;">versals and a broad,
inclusive "theory of language."</span></span></div>
rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8172578311479994445.post-87954336813813588892013-01-15T11:01:00.002-08:002013-01-15T11:01:14.133-08:00How language changes through time<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="Style1" style="margin-top: 4.15pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;">
<span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">How
language changes through time, how it varies through space, how it differs from
one social group to another, and most of all how it </span></span><span class="FontStyle17"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 17.0pt;">worlds—
</span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">these </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">things </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">are
studied in linguistics. Because modern linguistics has roots </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">which
</span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">go back to the early nineteenth century and beyond, many </span></span><span class="FontStyle20"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">people
</span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">are familiar with some </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">of
</span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">the things which interested linguists then and still
interest them today.</span></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.everydaylanguagelearner.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/juggling-language-11.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.everydaylanguagelearner.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/juggling-language-11.jpg" height="217" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="Style2" style="line-height: 24.0pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;">
<span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">They </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">find
it understandable that </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">a </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">linguist
should try to find the line </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">which </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">separates
those areas in New England where </span></span><span class="FontStyle17"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 17.0pt;">barn </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">is
</span></span><span class="FontStyle17"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 17.0pt;">"barrn" </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">(with r) </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">from
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and they may even envy </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">him a </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">bit
when he goes to </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">an </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">Indian
reservation or South America or Africa </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">to </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">investigate
some hitherto undescribed tongue and thus add his little bit </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">to
our </span></span><span class="FontStyle18"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">meager knowledge </span></span><span class="FontStyle19"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">of
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<![endif]-->rrrkakushihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15432785097252120693noreply@blogger.com0